BPC-157

Research conducted by Professor Predrag Sikiric and colleagues at the University of Zagreb examined BPC-157 within experimental models of vascular injury and endothelial signalling. In vitro endothelial studies demonstrated increased migration and tube formation within cultured endothelial cells, suggesting enhanced angiogenic signalling capacity via VEGFR2, Akt phosphorylation, and eNOS activity.

Animal models examining tendon and vascular injury demonstrated improved endothelial stability markers and increased nitric-oxide-related signalling.

Thymosin β4 (TB-500)

Thymosin β4 has been extensively investigated for its role in cytoskeletal regulation and cellular migration. Research demonstrated that it acts as a G-actin sequestration molecule, influencing cytoskeletal reorganisation and facilitating cellular movement. Studies reported accelerated wound closure rates in rodent dermal injury models.

GHK-Cu

GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring copper-binding tripeptide first identified by Dr. Loren Pickart. Research demonstrated significantly increased collagen synthesis in cultured human fibroblasts and may influence fibroblast activity, collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis, and metalloproteinase expression involved in extracellular matrix turnover.

NAD+

NAD+ is one of the most extensively studied molecules in cellular metabolism. Its role as a coenzyme in redox reactions has been documented for over a century. Modern research highlights its importance in mitochondrial function, DNA repair, and metabolic regulation as a required substrate for sirtuins, PARPs, and CD38 enzymes.

MOTS-c

MOTS-c is a mitochondrial-derived peptide first identified at the University of Southern California. Experimental studies showed it can translocate to the cell nucleus during metabolic stress and influence gene expression via AMPK pathway activation. In murine models, administration improved metabolic parameters and increased insulin sensitivity markers.

KPV

KPV is a tripeptide fragment derived from alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone. Studies have shown it may suppress activation of NF-κB, a transcription factor regulating expression of inflammatory cytokines. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease demonstrated reduced inflammatory cytokine production following exposure.

AOD9604

AOD9604 is a modified fragment of human growth hormone originally investigated at Monash University. Experimental rodent studies demonstrated stimulation of lipolysis through beta-3 adrenergic receptor signalling while avoiding systemic endocrine effects. Clinical trials in the early 2000s produced mixed results.

Epitalon

Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide derived from the natural pineal peptide epithalamin. Research at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology examined its potential influence on telomerase activity and chromosomal stability. Experimental studies reported increased telomerase activity in cultured human somatic cells and elongation of telomere markers within experimental environments.